Risk of invasion and axillary lymph node metastasis in ductal carcinoma in situ diagnosed by core-needle biopsy

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to assess the risk of invasion and axillary lymph node metastasis in patients with ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) diagnosed by preoperative core-needle biopsy. The data were used to select criteria for patients in whom sentinel node (SN) biopsy might be indicated. METHODS: One hundred and seventy-one women with 172 DCIS lesions diagnosed by core-needle biopsy were analysed. Axillary staging was performed by SN biopsy, axillary node sampling, or level 1-2 axillary lymph node dissection. RESULTS: Invasive breast cancer was found in the surgical specimens from 45 tumours (26.2 per cent). Risk factors for invasion were a palpable lesion (odds ratio (OR) 2.95 (95 per cent confidence interval 1.20 to 7.26); P = 0.019), presence of a mass on mammography (OR 3.06 (1.43 to 6.56); P = 0.004), and intermediate (OR 5.81 (1.18 to 28.57); P = 0.030) or poorly differentiated (OR 5.46 (1.17 to 25.64); P = 0.031) tumour grade. Lymph node metastases were found in ten women with DCIS and invasion on final pathology. Factors associated with metastases were age 55 years or less (P = 0.030), invasion of 1.0 cm or more (P < 0.001) and the presence of vascular invasion (P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: SN biopsy should be considered in women with an initial diagnosis of DCIS on core-needle biopsy who are at risk for invasion; this includes women with a palpable lump, a mass on mammography, and intermediate or poor tumour grade.     

Sentinel Node Biopsy and Concomitant Probe-Guided Tumor Excision of Nonpalpable Breast Cancer

Background Preliminary data have shown encouraging results of a single intratumoral radiopharmaceutical injection that enables both sentinel node biopsy and probe-guided excision of the primary tumor in patients with nonpalpable breast cancer. The aim of the study was to evaluate this approach in a large group of patients. Methods Lymphoscintigraphy was performed in 368 patients with nonpalpable breast cancer after intratumoral injection of ^99mTc-nanocolloid (.2 mL, 123 MBq, 3.3 mCi) guided by ultrasound or stereotaxis. The sentinel node was pursued with the aid of vital blue dye (1.0 mL, intratumoral) and a gamma ray detection probe. In case of breast-conserving surgery, the probe was used to guide the excision. Results At least one sentinel node could be identified intraoperatively in 357 patients (97%), of whom 69 had involved nodes (19%). Age over 60 years was associated with less frequent nonaxillary lymphatic drainage and absence of internal mammary chain dissemination. Tumor-free margins were obtained in 262 (89%) of the 293 patients who underwent segmental excision. Re-excision of the primary tumor bed was performed in six patients (2%). During a median follow-up of 22 months, one breast recurrence and one axillary recurrence were observed. Conclusions Lymphatic mapping and probe-guided tumor excision of nonpalpable breast cancer by intralesional administration of a single dose of ^99mTc-nanocolloid and blue dye resulted in 97% identification of the sentinel node and in tumor-free margins in 89% of the patients who underwent breast-conserving surgery. Longer follow-up is needed to substantiate the accuracy and safety of this technique.     

Critical remarks regarding guidelines based on scientific research

National and international guidelines for diagnosis and treatment are increasingly applied as standards for medical interventions. Evidence-based consensus guidelines are not consistently based on the outcome of scientific studies. Recent research yielding inherent low-grade evidence is liable to be overruled by personal impressions, sentiments and common sense. Guidelines are based on the average patient, with a certain range. With increasing specialisation, one increasingly sees that doctors justifiably digress from a guideline when a patient differs substantially from the average.     

The hidden sentinel node and SPECT/CT in breast cancer patients

Purpose  In a minority of breast cancer patients, lymphoscintigraphy shows no lymphatic drainage and ‘hidden’ sentinel nodes may remain undiscovered. The purpose of this study was to explore the additional value of the recently introduced hybrid SPECT/CT in breast cancer patients with axillary non-visualisation on planar images. The role of blue dye and careful palpation of the axilla was evaluated in patients in whom axillary sentinel nodes remained hidden after SPECT/CT. Methods  Fifteen breast cancer patients with non-visualisation on planar lymphoscintigraphy and 13 women with only extra-axillary sentinel nodes underwent SPECT/CT following late planar imaging without re-injection of the radiopharmaceutical. Results  SPECT/CT visualised lymphatic drainage in eight of the 15 patients (53%) with non-visualisation on planar imaging, depicted nine of the 14 harvested sentinel nodes (64%) and three of five tumour-positive sentinel nodes. In two of the 13 patients (15%) with only extra-axillary sentinel nodes on their planar lymphoscintigram, SPECT/CT showed an axillary sentinel node that appeared to be uninvolved. Careful exploration of the axilla with the combined use of blue dye, a gamma probe and intra-operative palpation revealed an axillary sentinel node in the remaining 18 patients. SPECT/CT showed the exact anatomical location of all visualised sentinel nodes. Conclusion  SPECT/CT discovered ‘hidden’ sentinel nodes in the majority of patients with non-visualisation, but was less valuable in patients with only extra-axillary lymphatic drainage on the planar images. Exploration of the axilla in patients with persistent non-visualisation improved the identification of axillary (involved) sentinel nodes.     

Breast Cancer Patients with Extra-Axillary Sentinel Nodes Only may be Spared Axillary Lymph Node Dissection

Background  In breast cancer patients with only extra-axillary sentinel nodes, surgeons typically perform axillary node dissection. The purpose of this study was to evaluate our approach to spare such patients further dissection based on the hypothesis that a sentinel node is not necessarily located in the axilla. Methods  Between March 11, 1999 and March 5, 2008, 1,949 breast cancer patients underwent lymphatic mapping with preoperative lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative use of a gamma-ray detection probe and patent blue dye. The tracers were injected into the tumors. Results  Eighty-two of the 1,949 patients had only extra-axillary drainage on their lymphoscintigrams. A sentinel node was harvested from the axilla in 62 patients but not in the remaining 20 patients. No axillary lymph nodes were removed in 4 of these 20 patients, suspicious palpable nodes were excised in another 4 patients, and node sampling was done in the remaining 12. These nodes were all free of disease. All sentinel nodes outside the axilla were removed. Two patients had a metastasis in an internal mammary chain node. No lymph node recurrences were detected in or outside the axilla in any of the 20 patients with a median follow-up time of 49 months. Conclusion  4% of the patients have only extra-axillary drainage on preoperative lymphoscintigrams. It is worthwhile to explore the axilla since a sentinel node can be found in three-quarters. In the remaining 1% without axillary sentinel nodes, axillary sampling seems unnecessary and the approach to refrain from axillary dissection appears valid.     

Radio-guided surgery improves outcome of therapeutic excision in non-palpable invasive breast cancer

Intratumoral injection of a radiocolloid for lymphatic mapping enables the therapeutic excision of clinically occult breast cancer with the aid of a gamma-ray detection probe. The aim of this study was to determine the success rate of radio-guided tumour excision in addition to a guide wire and to identify factors predicting clear margins. Sixty-five consecutive patients underwent radio-guided tumour excision after intratumoral injection of 99mTc-nanocolloid guided by ultrasound or stereotaxis. A localization wire was inserted after scintigraphy had been performed (group 1). The results were compared with retrospective data from 67 consecutive patients who underwent therapeutic wire-directed excision alone (group 2). Factors predicting clear margins (> or = 1 mm) were determined in a logistic regression model. Adequate margins were obtained in 83% of group 1 and in 64% of group 2 (P = 0.014). The invasive component was incompletely excised in two patients in group 1 and in 14 patients in group 2. Further surgery was performed in four patients in group 1 and in 14 patients in group 2. Factors predictive of clear margins were decreasing pathological tumour diameter (P = 0.035), increasing weight of the specimen (P = 0.046), absence of microcalcifications (P = 0.004) and absence of carcinoma in situ component (P = 0.024). Radio-guided excision was an independent predictor of complete excision of the invasive component (P = 0.012). The application of radio-guided surgery combined with wire localization seems to improve the outcome of therapeutic excision of non-palpable invasive breast cancer compared with wire-directed excision alone.     

Lymphatic drainage patterns from the breast

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to describe the lymphatic drainage patterns from the 5 "quadrants" of the breast. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Lymphatic mapping has provided techniques to visualize and harvest sentinel nodes in various locations and has generated renewed interest in nodes outside the axilla. METHODS: Between January 1997 and June 2002, 700 sentinel node procedures were performed in patients with cN0 breast cancer. Preoperative lymphoscintigraphy was performed after injection of 99mTc-nanocolloid into the tumor in a volume of 0.2 mL and a mean dose of 107.7 MBq (2.8 mCi). Intraoperatively, the sentinel node was pursued with the aid of a gamma-ray detection probe and patent blue dye (1.0 mL, into the lesion). The patients were divided into 5 groups according to the location of the primary breast cancer. In each group, a distinction was made between palpable and nonpalpable lesions of the breast. RESULTS: Drainage to either an axillary or an extra-axillary basin was observed in 678 patients. Both palpable and nonpalpable lesions may drain toward the internal mammary chain, although the latter more frequently, regardless of the quadrant. Drainage was also observed to supraclavicular, infraclavicular, interpectoral, and intramammary sentinel nodes. CONCLUSION: In each quadrant, a breast cancer may drain to sentinel nodes in various locations. There is a distinct difference in drainage patterns between palpable and nonpalpable lesions. These findings may improve the assessment of lymphatic dissemination in invasive breast cancer.     

Rationale for superficial injection techniques in lymphatic mapping in breast cancer patients

One of the most avidly debated issues in lymphatic mapping is where the tracers are best deposited in patients with breast cancer. The four superficial approaches are easy to perform and have several other distinct advantages. They are based on the hypothesis that the entire breast parenchyma and the overlying skin drain to a common node in the axilla because of their common embryological origin. Evidence is presented that casts doubt upon the correctness of this assumption. Tracer administration close to the tumor site appears to be the safest approach for the time being. Excellent results can be obtained with this latter approach, despite the fact that it is technically more demanding.